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المشاركة رقم: 1 | |||
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المنتدى :
نادي تمريض الباطني والكلى
![]() The endocrine system is one of the body’s main systems for communicating, controlling and coordinating the body’s work. It works with the nervous system, reproductive system, kidneys, gut, liver and fat to help maintain and control the following body energy levels reproduction growth and development internal balance of body systems, called homeostasis responses to surroundings, stress, and injury The endocrine system accomplishes these tasks via a network of glands and organs that produce, store, and secrete certain hormones. Hormones are special chemicals that move into body fluid after they are made by one cell or a group of cells. Hormones cause an effect on other cells or tissues of the body Endocrine glands make hormones that are used inside the body. Other glands make substances like saliva, reach the outside of the body. Endocrine glands and endocrine-related organs are like factories. They produce and store hormones and release them as needed When the body needs these substances, the bloodstream carries the hormones to specific targets. These targets may be organs, tissues, or cells. To function normally, the body needs glands that work correctly, a blood supply that works well to move hormones through the body to their target points, receptor places on the target cells for the hormones to do their work, and a system for controlling how hormones are produced and used What could go wrong? Endocrine disorders happen when one or more of the endocrine systems in your body are not working well. Hormones may be released in amounts that are too great or too small for the body to work normally. There may not be enough receptors, or binding sites, for the hormones so that they can direct the work that needs to be done. There could be a problem with the system regulating the hormones in the blood stream, or the body may have difficulty controlling hormone levels because of problems clearing hormones from the blood For example, a person's liver or kidneys may not be working well and this might keep too high a hormone level in the bloodstream If you or your primary care physician suspects that you have an endocrine disorder, you may need a specialist called an endocrinologist An endocrinologist is a specially trained doctor who diagnoses and treats diseases that affect your glands and hormone levels (endocrine system). They know how to treat conditions, which are often complex and involve many systems and structures within your body. Your regular doctor refers you to an endocrinologist when you have a problem with your endocrine system
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المشاركة رقم: 2 | |||||||||||||
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كاتب الموضوع :
همـ jihan ـسه
المنتدى :
نادي تمريض الباطني والكلى
Glands are small but powerful organs that are located throughout the body. They control very important body functions by releasing hormones
![]() The pituitary gland is sometimes called the "master gland" because of its great influence on the other body organs. Its function is complex and important for overall well-being The pituitary gland is divided into two parts front -anterior back -posterior The anterior pituitary produces several hormones Prolactin or PRL - PRL stimulates milk production from a woman's breasts after childbirth and can affect sex hormone levels from the ovaries in women and the testes in men Growth hormone or GH - GH stimulates growth in childhood and is important for maintaining a healthy body composition. In adults it is also important for maintaining muscle mass and bone mass. It can affect fat distribution in the body Adrenocorticotropin or ACTH - ACTH stimulates production of cortisol by the adrenal glands. Cortisol, a so-called "stress hormone," is vital to survival. It helps maintain blood pressure and blood glucose levels Thyroid-stimulating hormone or TSH - TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to make thyroid hormones, which, in turn, control (regulate) the body's metabolism, energy, growth and development, and nervous system activity Luteinizing hormone or LH - LH regulates testosterone in men and estrogen in women Follicle-stimulating hormone or FSH - FSH promotes sperm production in men and stimulates the ovaries to release eggs (ovulate) in women. LH and FSH work together to allow normal function of the ovaries or testes The posterior pituitary produces two hormones Oxytocin - Oxytocin causes milk letdown in nursing mothers and contractions during childbirth Antidiuretic hormone or ADH - ADH, also called vasopressin, is stored in the back part of the pituitary gland and regulates water balance. If this hormone is not secreted properly, this can lead to problems of sodium (salt) and water balance, and could also affect the kidneys so that they do not work as well In response to over- or underproduction of pituitary hormones, the target glands affected by these hormones can produce too many or too few hormones of their own. For example, too much growth hormone can cause gigantism, or excessive growth, while too little GH may cause dwarfism, or very short stature
The hypothalamus is part of the brain that lies just above the pituitary gland. It releases hormones that start and stop the release of pituitary hormones. The hypothalamus controls hormone production in the pituitary gland through several "releasing" hormones. Some of these are growth hormone-releasing hormone - controls GH release thyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH- controls TSH release corticoptropin-releasing hormone CRH -controls ACTH release Gonadotropin-releasing hormone GnRH - tells the pituitary gland to make luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which are important for normal puberty
![]() The thymus is a gland needed early in life for normal immune function. It is very large just after a child is born and weighs its greatest when a child reaches puberty. Then its tissue is replaced by fat. The thymus gland secretes hormones called humoral factors. These hormones help to develop the lymphoid system, which is a system throughout the body that help it to reach a mature immune response in cells to protect them from invading bodies, like bacteria
![]() Scientists are still learning how the pineal gland works. They have found one hormone so far that is produced by this gland: melatonin. Melatonin may stop the action of (inhibit) the hormones that produce gonadotropin, which causes the ovaries and testes to develop and function. It may also help to control sleep patterns
![]() Males have twin reproductive glands, called testes, that produce the hormone testosterone. Testosterone helps a boy develop and then maintain his sexual traits. During puberty, testosterone helps to bring about the physical changes that turn a boy into an adult male, such as growth of the penis and testes, growth of facial and pubic hair, deepening of the voice, increase in muscle mass and strength, and increase in height. Throughout adult life, testosterone helps maintain sex drive, sperm production, male hair patterns, muscle mass, and bone mass Testicular cancer, which is the most common form of cancer for males between ages 15 and 35, may need to be treated by surgical removal of one or both testicles. The resulting decrease or absence of testosterone may cause decreased sexual drive, impotence, altered body image, and other symptoms
![]() The two most important hormones of a woman's twin reproductive glands, the ovaries, are estrogen and progesterone. These hormones are responsible for developing and maintaining female sexual traits, as well as maintaining a pregnancy. Along with the pituitary gonadotropins (FH and LSH), they also control the menstrual cycle. The ovaries also produce inhibin, a protein that curbs (inhibits) the release of follicle-stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary and helps control egg development The most common change in the ovarian hormones is caused by the start of menopause, part of the normal aging process. It also can occur when ovaries are removed surgically. Loss of ovarian function means loss of estrogen, which can lead to hot flashes, thinning vaginal tissue, lack of menstrual periods, mood changes and bone loss, or osteoporosis A condition called polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is caused by overproduction of male hormones in females. PCOS can affect menstrual cycles, fertility, and hormone levels, as well as cause acne, facial hair growth, and male pattern balding
![]() The thyroid is a small gland inside the neck, located in front of your breathing airway (trachea) and below your Adam's apple. The thyroid hormones control your metabolism, which is the body's ability to break down food and store it as energy and the ability to break down food into waste products with a release of energy in the process. The thyroid produces two hormones, T3 called tri-iodothyronine and T4 called thyroxine Thyroid disorders result from too little or too much thyroid hormone. Symptoms of hypothyroidism (too little hormone) include decreased energy, slow heart rate, dry skin, constipation, and feeling cold all the time. In children, hypothyroidism most commonly leads to slowed growth. Infants born with hypothyroidism can have delayed development and mental retardation if not treated. In adults, this disorder often causes weight gain. An enlarged thyroid, or goiter, may develop Hyperthyroidism (too much hormone) may result in exophthalmic goiter, or Grave's disease. Symptoms include anxiety, fast heart rate, diarrhea, and weight loss. An enlarged thyroid gland (goiter) and swelling behind the eyes that causes the eyes to push forward, or bulge out, are common
![]() Each adrenal gland is actually two endocrine organs. The outer portion is called the adrenal cortex. The inner portion is called the adrenal medulla. The hormones of the adrenal cortex are essential for life. The hormones of the adrenal medulla are not The adrenal cortex produces glucocorticoids (such as cortisol) that help the body control blood sugar, increase the burning of protein and fat, and respond to stressors like fever, major illness, and injury. The mineralcorticoids (such as aldosterone) control blood volume and help to regulate blood pressure by acting on the kidneys to help them hold onto enough sodium and water. The adrenal cortex also produces some sex hormones, which are important for some secondary sex characteristics in both men and women Two important disorders caused by problems with the adrenal cortex are Cushing's syndrome -too much cortisol and Addison's disease -too little cortisol The adrenal medulla produces epinephrine (adrenaline), which is secreted by nerve endings and increases the heart rate, opens airways to improve oxygen intake, and increases blood flow to muscles, usually when a person is scared, excited, or under stress Norepinephrine also is made by the adrenal medulla, but this hormone is more related to maintaining normal activities as opposed to emergency reactions. Too much norepinephrine can cause high blood pressure
![]() Located behind the thyroid gland are four tiny parathyroid glands. These make hormones that help control calcium and phosphorous levels in the body. The parathyroid glands are necessary for proper bone development. In response to too little calcium in the diet, the parathyroid glands make parathyroid hormone, or PTH, that takes calcium from bones so that it will be available in the blood for nerve conduction and muscle contraction If the parathyroids are removed during a thyroid operation, low blood calcium will result in symptoms such as irregular heartbeat, muscle spasms, tingling in the hands and feet, and possibly difficulty breathing. A tumor or chronic illness can cause too much secretion of PTH and lead to bone pain, kidney stones, increased urination, muscle weakness, and fatigue
![]() The pancreas is a large gland behind your stomach that helps the body to maintain healthy blood sugar (glucose) levels. The pancreas secretes insulin, a hormone that helps glucose move from the blood into the cells where it is used for energy. The pancreas also secretes glucagon when the blood sugar is low. Glucagon tells the liver to release glucose, stored in the liver as glycogen, into the bloodstream Diabetes, an imbalance of blood sugar levels, is the major disorder of the pancreas. Diabetes occurs when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin (Type 1) or the body is resistant to the insulin in the blood (Type 2). Without enough insulin to keep glucose moving through the metabolic process, the blood glucose level rises too high In Type 1 diabetes, a patient must take insulin shots. In Type 2 diabetes, a patient may not necessarily need insulin and can sometimes control blood sugar levels with exercise, diet and other medications A condition called hyperinsulinism (HI) is caused by too much insulin and leads to hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). The inherited form, called congenital HI, causes severe hypoglycemia in infancy. Sometimes it can be treated with medication but often requires surgical removal of part or all of the pancreas. An insulin-secreting tumor of the pancreas, or insulinoma, is a less common cause of hypoglycemia. Symptoms of low blood sugar include anxiety, sweating, increased heart rate, weakness, hunger, and light-headedness. Low blood sugar stimulates release of epinephrine, glucagon and growth hormone, which help to return the blood sugar to normal
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المشاركة رقم: 3 | ||||||
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كاتب الموضوع :
همـ jihan ـسه
المنتدى :
نادي تمريض الباطني والكلى
Several organs play a major role in the helping the endocrine system to work well. Although these organs are not glands themselves, they do produce, store and send out hormones that help the body to function properly and maintain a healthy endocrine system
Besides providing a connection between mother and fetus, the placenta is a special endocrine organ. It produces hormones that are similar to those produced elsewhere in the body. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), estrogens and progesterone are among the most important of these, because they maintain a pregnancy and prepare a woman's mammary glands for nursing hCG stimulates the ovary to produce estrogens and progestins and helps control normal development of the fetal genitals. The estrogens in the placenta stimulate breast development, promote normal labor, and help produce a steady rise in prolactin. The progestins stimulate breast development and help reduce uterine muscle contractions. Human placental lactogen is a hormone that decreases the mother's level of growth hormone and increases the amount of blood glucose and lipids (fatty substances) circulating in the mother's blood
These three organs work together to synthesize 1,25-diydroxyvitamin D, the active form of vitamin D, which controls levels of calcium and phosphorus in the blood. In the skin, a modified cholesterol (fatty) molecule is converted to vitamin D by chemical changes through ultraviolet rays from the sun. In the liver, vitamin D3 is converted to 25-hydroxyvitamin D (calcidiol) before going to the kidney where it is converted to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (calcitriol) with the help of parathyroid hormone. Calcitriol acts on the intestine, kidneys, and bones to maintain normal levels of blood calcium and phosphorus. Too little calcium in the diet can lead to rickets in children and osteoporosis in adults
The digestive tract is the largest endocrine-related organ system in the body. It makes and secretes several different hormones that play a role in the body's metabolism. Gherlin and leptin are two such hormones that have been shown to regulate appetite and may be important in obesity and weight loss
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المشاركة رقم: 4 | ||||||||||
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كاتب الموضوع :
همـ jihan ـسه
المنتدى :
نادي تمريض الباطني والكلى
Everyone's body undergoes changes, some natural and some not, that can affect the way the endocrine system works. Some of the factors that affect endocrine organs include aging, illness, stress, the environment, and genetics
Despite age-related changes, the endocrine system functions well in most older people. However, some changes do occur because of normal damage to cells during the aging process and genetically programmed cellular changes. These changes may alter the following hormone production and secretion hormone metabolism -how quickly excess hormones are broken down and leave the body, for example, through urination hormone levels circulating in blood biological activities target cell or target tissue response to hormones rhythms in the body, such as the menstrual cycle For example, increasing age is thought to be related to the development of Type 2 diabetes. With aging, the target cell response time becomes slower, especially in people who might be at risk for this disorder The signs and symptoms of endocrine disorders affect many body systems. In elderly persons, they are frequently subtle and may be harder to detect than in younger persons. At times, these signs are incorrectly linked with other causes, such as the changes of normal aging, other medical disorders or conditions, or drug therapy The aging process affects nearly every gland. For example, the hypothalamus is responsible for releasing hormones that stimulate the pituitary gland. During aging, there is either impaired secretion of some hypothalamic hormones or impaired pituitary response. These changes appear to influence the endocrine system's ability to respond to the body's internal environment. As a result, the body cannot not respond as well either to internal or external stresses With increasing age, the pituitary gland can become smaller and more fibrous and may not work as well. For example, production of growth hormone may decrease. This may lead to problems such as decreased lean muscle, decreased heart function, and osteoporosis Aging can affect a woman's ovaries. These organs eventually exhibit the most common endocrine change related to aging: menopause. In menopause, the ovaries stop responding to FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary. Ovarian hormone production of estrogen and progesterone slows down and then stops. Eventually a woman stops having her periods altogether
Illness may affect endocrine function in several ways. Acute or chronic conditions may change endocrine functions Chronic/Acute Conditions Hormones are cleared from blood during their circulation to the target tissues. The liver and kidneys are primarily responsible for clearing hormones. Several clearance processes become altered or slowed in individuals who have chronic heart, liver, or kidney disorders Acute physical or mental stressors can trigger a preprogrammed stress response. The stress response is complex and can influence heart, kidney, liver, and endocrine system function
Endocrine pathologies can result from the following congenital (birth) or genetic defects surgery traumatic injuries cancerous and non-cancerous tumors infection autoimmune destruction -the immune system turns against the body's own organs and causes damage In general, endocrine pathologies create either hyposecretion (underproduction) or hypersecretion (overproduction) of hormones. The underlying problem may be the endocrine gland itself or a source outside the gland
Many factors can start the stress response, but physical stressors are most important. In order for the body to respond to, and cope with, physical stress, the adrenal glands make more cortisol. If the adrenal glands do not respond, this can be a life-threatening problem. Some medically important factors causing a stress response are as follows trauma (severe injury) of any type severe illness or infection intense heat or cold surgical procedures serious diseases allergic reactions Other types of stress include emotional, social, or economic, but these do not require the body to produce high levels of cortisol in order to survive the stress
An environmental endocrine disruptor (EED) is a substance outside of the body that may cause adverse effects to normal function of the endocrine system. Some EEDs mimic natural hormone binding at the target cell receptor. These substances start the same processes between body cells that the natural hormone would start. EEDs of this type are referred to as hormone agonists Other EEDs block cellular events associated with hormone binding. These EEDs are called hormone antagonists. Still other EEDs can directly interfere with the production, storage, release, transport, clearance, binding, or elimination of endogenous hormones in the body. This can greatly affect the function of certain body systems There are currently over 84,000 commercial synthetic chemical substances in use around the world. We do not know the extent to which they can interfere with the endocrine system. Based on our knowledge of the effects of certain synthetic chemicals, such as DDT, diethylstilbestrol and PCBs, and the increasing evidence that reproductive function in wildlife and humans is changing, scientists are now examining a broad range of chemical effects EEDs can affect people and animals in many ways disrupted sexual development decreased fertility birth defects decreased hatching in animals reduced immune response neurological and behavioral changes, including reduced stress tolerance
Portions of your endocrine system can be affected by genes. Genes are units of hereditary information passed from parent to child. Genes contain the instructions for the production of proteins, which are some of the essential components of the body. Genes are contained in chromosomes. The normal number of chromosomes is 46 -23 pairs Sometimes extra, missing, altered, or damaged chromosomes can result in diseases or conditions that affect hormone production or function. The 23rd pair, for example, is the sex chromosome pair. A mother and father each contributes a sex chromosome to the child. Girls have two X chromosomes (one from the mother and one from the father), while boys have one X (from mother) and one Y (from father) chromosome. Sometimes, however, a chromosome or piece of a chromosome may be missing. In Turner syndrome, only one normal X chromosome is present and this can cause poor growth. In another example, a child with Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) may be missing all or part of chromosome 15, which also affects growth, metabolism, and puberty Your genes also may place you at increased risk for certain diseases, such as breast cancer. Taking estrogen can cause breast tissue to grow faster. Cancer usually appears in fast-growing tissue. This is one of the ways that scientists believe that taking estrogen for symptoms of menopause may be related to developing breast cancer. Another idea is that breast tissue breaks down estrogen into chemicals that can bind to DNA (genetic material) and damage it. Damage to DNA is a common cause of cancer. At this time, it is not known exactly why estrogen might cause breast cancer or what role it does play in breast cancer growth
Time appears to affect the release of certain hormones. Some hormones have a typical cycling pattern of release. This pattern often fits with daily body rhythms or the sleep-wake cycle Cortisol builds up early in the day, decreases toward evening, rises again toward the end of sleep, and peaks during the morning hours Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) peaks during sleep and reaches its low point three hours after an individual awakens Levels of growth hormone (GH) are high 90 minutes after sleep begins. GH typically increases during the first 2 hours of deep sleep. It also increases if a person is hypoglycemic (low blood sugar), starving, exercising, excited or is a victim of severe injury There is a very definite rise-and-fall pattern to both estrogen and progesterone activity during a woman's menstrual cycle, which lasts an average of 28 days
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المشاركة رقم: 5 | |||
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كاتب الموضوع :
همـ jihan ـسه
المنتدى :
نادي تمريض الباطني والكلى
![]() Glands that discharge secretions by means of a duct, which opens onto an epithelial surface (a tissue that covers the external surface of the body and lines hollow structures inside the body). Exocrine glands include the sweat, sebaceous, and mammary glands, and the glands that secrete digestive enzymes. Most glands in the body are exocrine types Types of exocrine glands Unicellular exocrine glands Multicellular exocrine glands Unicellular exocrine glands These consist of single cells, specialized for secretion, which are interspersed amongst other, non-secretory epithelial cells. Although, being unicellular, they lack ducts, they are nevertheless considered to be exocrine because they secrete their products directly on the free surface of open body cavities. The most common unicellular exocrine glands are the goblet cells (mucus secreting cells) found in the epithelium of the trachea and the digestive tube Multicellular exocrine glands These are formed by invagination, or in-pouching, of an epithelial sheet. The epithelium grows down from the surface into the underlying tissues to form either a simple or compound tube. The blind end of the tube constitute the secretory parts of the gland and may stay tubular or expand to form round bags called acini or alveoli There are three different ways in which exocrine glands secrete their products. These modes of secretion are called merocrine, apocrine, and holocrine Merocrines glands (e.g., salivary glands) secrete their product from intact cells Apocrine glands (e.g., mammary glands) accumulate their secretory product at the apical surface of each cell, which then separates from the remainder to from a secretion in the lumen of the gland. The cells then repair themselves Holcrine glands (e.g., sebaceous or oil glands) are those in which entire cells and their secretions accumulate as the gland's secretory product. Discharged cells are replaced by new ones
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المشاركة رقم: 6 | ||
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كاتب الموضوع :
همـ jihan ـسه
المنتدى :
نادي تمريض الباطني والكلى
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المشاركة رقم: 7 | |||
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كاتب الموضوع :
همـ jihan ـسه
المنتدى :
نادي تمريض الباطني والكلى
![]() الغدد الصماء هي الغدد التي تقوم بإفراز الهورمونات إلى الدم مباشرة لتصل إلى الخلايا أو الأنسجة المستهدفة لإحداث تأثيرها الفسيولوجي الوظيفي . والغدد الصماء تقوم بواسطة الهورمونات بضبط وتنظيم أنشطة الجسم المختلفة لمواجهة متطلبات التغيير سواء في البيئة الداخلية أو الخارجية للجسم ، وكذلك تقوم الغدد الصماء بضبط التطور والنمو باستكمال نمو العظام والجهاز العصبي والحفاظ على تركيب ووظيفة الخلية وتنظيم إنتاج واستخدام الطاقة فيها الغدد الصماء هي: 1- الغدة النخامية pituitary gland موجودة بالرأس وتنقسم إلى فصين : فص أمامي وفص خلفي وتعتبر هذه الغدة مركز التحكم في جميع الغدد الصماء 2- تحت المهاد hypothalamus موجود بالرأس 3- الغدة الصنوبرية pineal gland موجود بالرأس 4- الغدة الدرقية thyroid gland تقع في مقدمة الرقبة وتتكون من فصين متصلين ببعضهم وهي على شكل فراشة 5- الغدة الجاردرقية parathyroid glands وهي أربعة توجد بجوار الغدة الدرقية وتفرز هورمون لتنظيم نسبة الكالسيوم في الدم . 6- غدة الكظر (فوق الكلوية) adrenal -suprarenal وهى عبارة عن غدتين واحدة فوق كل كلية 7- المبيض ovary يوجد مبيضان لكل سيدة في تجويف البطن لإنتاج البويضات وإفراز الهورمونات الأنثوية . 8- الخصية testis يوجد خصيتان لكل رجل في كيس الصفن Endocrine-Related Organs 1- المشيمة (خلال فترة الحمل) تعتبر غدة صماء حيث تقوم بإفراز ثلاث هرمونات توجد داخل رحم السيدات الحوامل ، وهي تقوم بتوصيل الغذاء والأوكسوجين اللازم لنمو الجنين بالإضافة إلى إفرازها لهورمونات الحمل 2- البنكرياس pancreas ويوجد في أعلى التجويف البطني تحت المعدة ، ويمكن اعتبار غدة البنكرياس صماء وغير صماء في نفس الوقت فالبنكرياس كغدة غير صماء يقوم بإفراز عصارة البنكرياس الهاضمة ويصبها في القناة الهضمية وتحتوي العصارة البنكرياسية على عدة إنزيمات تساعد على هضم المواد السكرية والبروتينية والدهنية ، أما وظيفة البنكرياس كغدة صماء فتشمل إفراز هورمونات الإنسولين والجلوكاجون والجاسترين 3- مخاطية المعدة والأمعاء gastrointestinal mucosa 4- الكليتان kidneys الهرمونات Hormones يمكن تعريف الهرمون بأنه مادة كيميائية يتم إنتاجها وتخزينها داخل خلايا غدة لا قنوية، وينطلق هذا الهرمون إلى الدم بمجرد وصول إشارة فسيولوجية physiological signal، والتي قد تنتج من تغير تركيز بعض محتويات الدم (مثل الكالسيوم أو الجلوكوز) أو من وصول إشارة عصبية neural signal. وعن طريق مجرى الدم ينتقل الهرمون إلى العضو المستهدف. ويمكن تقسيم الهرمونات طبقا لتركيبها الكيميائي إلى ثلاث مجموعات: 1- هرمونات ببتيدية أو بروتينية التركيب peptide or protein hormones 2- هرمونات ستيرودية steroid hormones 3- هرمونات مشتقة من الأحماض الأمينية amino acid-related hormones
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المشاركة رقم: 8 | ||
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كاتب الموضوع :
همـ jihan ـسه
المنتدى :
نادي تمريض الباطني والكلى
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